The Basic Facts of Best Research Essay Topics

The Basic Facts of Best Research Essay Topics Deciding on an essay topic is just one of the main pieces of writing a good essay or paper. The Research Essay should consist of appropriate bibliographic info and references. Writing an essay, or another paper for this matter, isn't just writing. The following thing is to understand about research essay format. The very first step you will want to assume is that your topic will probably be too broad, in other words, it will ask that you deal with an excessive amount of information for a single essay. You should be certain to understand everything clearly once you go for an essay topic. An individual should, therefore, know the very best company to acquire decent essay. To begin with, local newspaper papers might be fantastic place to discover interesting argumentative essay topics. You may continue to keep your argumentative essays for your upcoming job portfolio in case they're highly graded. However soon you're predicted to file your college argumentative essay for grading, we'll write the paper for you. In addition, the essay ought to be written in a font that's readable with a minimal font size of 12. Know how your essay is going to be evaluated. An argumentative essay is a certain kind of academic writing. It requires you to decide on a topic and take a position on it. Without a suitable content, excellent research paper topics are not going to make sense. Any fantastic research paper requires considerably more time than a normal essay or lab report. When selecting your research paper topic, you must make certain it is neither boring nor worn out. Not all research paper topics are made equal, and you would like to guarantee you select a good topic before you commence writing. Writing a research essay is a critical element of academics and shouldn't be avoided on account of somebody's anxiety. The Introduction should contain your thesis statement or the subject of your research along with the aim of your study. Making the thesis of the research essay will assist in the research procedure. What to Expect From Best Research Essay Topics? The purpose of the selected topic is to increase the corpus of knowledge already offered. It's possible for you to pick topics from assorted lists of ready themes. Discover which of the topics, you presently have a fairly good background on which will make it possible for you to have a relative edge. The key to pick a very good topic for an argumentative essay is to choose a subject where there's a lot of debates on topics or stances. For some students, a choice of topic is the easiest part. Shopping online isn't secure or secure. Inspiration to make your own advertising or media argumentative essay topics isn't challenging to discover. Simply, you ought to strive to make them interested in furthering their discussion by themselves even once they are finished with the reading the writing. It's possible you will select one broad topic, but it's hard to address an extensive topic in research essay writing. If you select the wrong subject, you might get stuck with your writing and have a tough time moving forward. Preferably, it must be something that you're an expert in. Becoming a seasoned researcher and writer in any area or discipline takes plenty of practice. Even if a particular research paper topic is getting plenty of buzz at this time or other individuals seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic if you don't genuinely have some type of interest in it also. As a consequence, any argumentative essay topics that you decide to write about with regard to nutrition should have at least two sides to them, so that you could argue for or against something.

The Morality And Social Ethics - 1331 Words

Modest Ambiguity The Afterlife, a concept almost controversial enough we ought to legalize the option to transcend after death (just incase). The belief in an afterlife makes not only scientific but also idealistic sense. Though there are many different versions of the after life, this author supports re-incarnation from a Buddhist perspective. The belief of an afterlife is incredibly important to the human psych. Living with the belief of an impending death and after life that relies on your actions in this lifetime keeps people’s morality and social ethics at their highest not to mention providing many with hope and meaning in life. Without an afterlife, there is no point in being a good person, other than for self-fulfillment, or even living at all. From a scientific perspective there are several different â€Å"experiences† of the afterlife that people have. These experiences are classified as Verdical NDE’S (vertical near death experiences), Peak in the Dari en, Mediumship, and death bed phenomena. While Verdical NDE’S are the most commonly experienced they are also the most easily explained. As Greg Taylor says â€Å"†¦the heavenly visions of the NDE to be simply hallucinations brought on by the various physical and psychological burdens put on the brain by its imminent demise†. Anyone not familiar with the Verdical NDE phenomena, an adequate example would be Eben Alexander’s experience. Eben Alexander is a neurosurgeon, whom I might add is still practicing,Show MoreRelatedEssay on The Death Penalty:Social Ethics: Morality and Social Policy1737 Words   |  7 Pagesonly be rational and just to offer aid to the innocent than â€Å"to those who are guilty of squandering aid† (Mappes, Zembaty, and DeGrazia 141). Works Cited Mappes, Thomas A., Jane S. Zembaty, and David DeGrazia. The Death Penalty. Social Ethics: Morality and Social Policy. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012. 105-53. Print. Read MoreThe Ethical Concepts Of Kantian Ethics Essay1043 Words   |  5 PagesMorality in Reasons, not Consequences Introduction The philosophy of Kant has become a turning point in the development of the Western thinking and worldview. His innovative and progressive ideas have strongly contributed to the formation of a new paradigm of the universe and role of humans in it. A great role in Kant’s studies belongs to the analysis of ethics, morality and law as the main regulators of the human behavior in the society Kant is known as the founder of the deontological ethics (Kantianism)Read MoreEthics : Ethics And Morality1476 Words   |  6 Pagesuniversal on ethics and morality. Ethics among different cultures is so vast, even though every culture does have a standard for ethics which they live by. Although ethics is a broad human universal, there is no specific universal ethic. 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Fundamentally this suggests thatRead MoreReligion And Morality On The Hunt Of Finding The Author Of What We Know As Social Norms952 Words   |  4 PagesGod as Author of Morality There is always controversy around when we bring any topic related to religion to the table and it is not different when we talk about morality. This paper will explore the controversial side that plays religion and morality in the hunt of finding the author of what we know as social norms. In this philosophy paper, we will discuss the origin and evolution of the Divine Command Theory and we will analyze an objections against this theory cited by Plato (Atenas, 427 - 347Read MoreAmerican Culture : The People s Way Of Life Essay1747 Words   |  7 Pagesstruggles with ethics and morality. Evidence suggests that the American culture somewhat favors the members who are well placed within it and ignores those, the lower class. 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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation free essay sample

I personally believe that more people in this world have extrinsic motivation, rather than intrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are bound to succeed at a much better rate than someone with extrinsic motivation because they are willing and determined to acquire new material. Intrinsically motivated students go above and beyond the actual subject or activity to gain better understandings of it whereas extrinsically motivated students have to be bribed with an award of some sort. Intrinsic motivation is a motivation that drives a person by enjoyment in a certain task. It is motivation that is within an individual rather than counting on the receipt of a reward at the end. People who are intrinsically motivated are more prone to willingly act on a task rather that feel pressure to do a task. Say for example, Sally was given the topic of Melanoma to write her biology paper on. Instead of only worrying about achieving a good grade on the paper, she would rather master the topic and have a better understanding of it. Intrinsic motivation is not solely based on outside rewards, such as cash, a prize, or trophy. This type of otivation simply comes from the gratification of the task itself rather than the feeling of it being a drag or a chore. People who are intrinsically motivated do not look at getting a good grade as full satisfaction for any Ken 3 given task. Instead, they are focused on the full comprehension of the task. An intrinsically motivated person will solve a math problem because they enjoy the challenge of getting to the solution. Intrinsic motivation is the natural joy for learning that break down into what is wanted, and exactly how much it is wanted. Intrinsic motivation is simply being motivated by goals and not having the pleasure that others experience when they attain those goals. Pleasure becomes boundlessly desired, however goals are not. Intrinsic motivation is the type of motivation to appoint activities that highlight or perpetuate a person’s self-concept. Intrinsically motivated people are naturally motivated when they are striving toward personal, meaningful goals, which require continuous level of difficulty or challenge. The interest and enjoyment of activities give them drive and motivation. Most people in this world are not intrinsically motivated, but extrinsically motivated instead. â€Å"Individuals differ enormously in what makes them happy—for some competition, winning and wealth are the greatest sources of happiness, but for others, feeling competent or socializing may be more satisfying. The point is, you can’t say some motivations, like money, are inherently inferior. † -Steven Reiss, Psychology Professor at Ohio State University Extrinsic motivation is the performance of an activity that is followed by a reward. This type of motivation comes from outside of an individual. Extrinsically motivated people desire rewards such as money, good grades, prizes, or in other cases, trophies. Competition is a type of extrinsic motivation because it boosts the person to win, rather than to thoroughly enjoy the activity. People with extrinsic motivation Ken 4 constantly thrive off of amusement or contentment of an activity rather than doing it for themselves of their own well-being. An example of extrinsic motivation would be, Jennifer runs marathons once a year. She does not do it for the feeling of accomplishment or the natural high that it gives you, but for the medal, congratulations, attention, and pat on the back or high five received from others at the finish line. Her main focus is the attention provided and the â€Å"bragging rights. † Extrinsic motivation drives people to do tasks for tangible or other types of rewards, rather than grasping what the task is really about. Another example would be, a student is asked to complete an essay for his or her literature class. The student has no drive or motivation to do so, but reluctantly completes the assignment to avoid punishment or a bad grade. There is no reason that money can’t be an effective motivator, or that grades can’t motivate students in school. It’s all a matter of individual differences. Different people are motivated in different ways. † –Steven Reiss, Psychology Professor at Ohio State University. I agree with both of Mr. Reissâ₠¬â„¢ quotes. He also mentioned that intrinsic motivation couldn’t be proved. I sort of agree with that statement as well. I will admit, it is nice to receive a good grade or prize after doing something that you are not crazy about doing. But I also get the intrinsic motives because it is a great feeling to actually want to learn something and strive to do well in it because it is enjoyable in a way. Ken 5 I constructed a survey from about fifteen different people to see if they believed that their motivation was intrinsic or extrinsic. I also asked the surveyors which type of motivation they believed that most people in this world utilized. The majority, which was eight of the surveyors, said that they were intrinsically motivated. Two of the surveyors claimed that they were extrinsically motivated. The other five surveyors claimed that they were undecided, or chose both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. All fifteen of the surveyors said that they believe that the majority of people in this world are extrinsically motivated. Ken 6 References Deckers, Lambert. Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental. 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn amp; Bacon, 2010. Print. Motivation. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 04 Nov. 2013. Web. 11 Apr. 2013. lt;http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Motivationgt;. Intrinsic  Motivation. About. com Gifted Children. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Apr. 2013. lt;http://giftedkids. about. com/od/glossary/g/intrinsic. htmgt;. Intrinsic Motivation Doesnt Exist, Researcher Says. Intrinsic Motivation Doesnt Exist, Researcher Says. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Apr. 2013. lt;http://researchnews. osu. edu/archive/inmotiv. htmgt;. Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation. Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Apr. 2013. lt;http://www2. fiu. edu/~cryan/motivation/intr insic. htmgt;. Intrinsic Motivation. Intrinsic Motivation. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Apr. 2013. lt;http://education. purduecal. edu/Vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_intrinsic. htmgt;. | | | |

The Lost World Essay Paper Example For Students

The Lost World Essay Paper The Lost World (Comparison/Contrast): The Lost World as a novel is verydifferent from its film version. The most contrasts are found in the beginningof the story. For instance, the novel starts off with Ian Malcolm giving adetailed lecture on extinction theories at the Santa Fe Research Center. Whereas, the film starts with a wealthy British family vacationing on Isla Sorna, anisland of Costa Rica. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-Category:Music MoviesPaper Title:The Lost World (Comparison/Contrast)Text:Jurassic Park The Lost WorldComparison ContrastThe Lost World as a novel is very different from its film version. The mostcontrasts are found in the beginning of the story. For instance, the novelstarts off with Ian Malcolm giving a detailed lecture on extinction theories atthe Santa Fe Research Center. Where as, the film starts with a wealthy Britishfamily vacationing on Isla Sorna, an island of Costa Rica. On this island thetiny dinosaurs called compys attack a young British girl. As you can see thebeginning of the novel is completely different from the beginning of the film. We will write a custom essay on The Lost World Paper specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now As a matter of fact, the novel and the film do not begin to have anysimilarities until the characters get to Site-B, an island off of Costa Ricawhere the dinosaurs where bred. The characters in The Lost World did have a lot of similarities as well asdifferences. One major character is Ian Malcolm, a forty-year-old man who wasone of the early pioneers in the Chaos Theory. Malcolm also featured in thefirst Jurassic Park. Even though he was in both the novel and the film, hischaracteristics were different. In the novel his leg was hurt from his previousexpedition in the first Jurassic Park, but in the film he seemed to be perfectlyhealthy and uninjured. Another character that plays a major roll is RichardLevine, an arrogant thirty-year-old man. In the novel Levine plays as a wealthypaleontologist in search of Site-B. As for the film, Richard Levine plays acompletely different roll. In the film he is the nephew of John Hammond, thecreator of the dinosaurs. He also has no association with being apaleontologist; his interests in the movie are for making money off thedinosaurs by creating an amusement park that features the dinosaurs on the mainland. Sarah Hardin g plays a big part in then novel and as well as the film. Inthe novel Harding plays a rather young biologist, which has a relationship withIan Malcolm. The only difference with Harding between the novel and the film isthat she plays a biologist in the novel and a paleontologist in the film. Another two characters that play a major roll in the novel are Kelly Curtis andArby Benton. Kelly is a thirteen-year-old seventh grader, who has an interest inpaleontology, not to mention that she idols Sarah Harding. Arby is aneleven-year-old African American seventh grader; he has been skipped up a gradebecause he is so intelligent. In the novel the two children sneak on to the boatis on the expedition to Site-B. In the film there is only one child, a youngAfrican American girl named Kelly that is related to Ian Malcolm by adoption,which also sneaks on to the island. The most similar of the novel and film is probably the terrain of Costa Rica. This is probably because the terrain is a known fact that cannot be changed. Inboth the novel and film, the terrain is covered with rocky cliffs and volcanicridges. Ravines, tall grasses, and very dense overgrown jungles also flourishedthe island. Considering the dense overgrown jungles it was very hard for thecharacters to see the buildings and roads from the air, which made it difficultto find a good place to land. One thing that made it difficult to travel,besides the dinosaurs hunting them, was the gusty winds with updrafts. .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 , .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .postImageUrl , .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 , .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6:hover , .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6:visited , .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6:active { border:0!important; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6:active , .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6 .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ueeeb87bba7c0ddabe8c0fc3e420401d6:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Fast Food: The Ultimate Step towards Devastation EssayThe dinosaurs were obviously similar in the novel and film. The only thingthat contrasted the two is the fact that the novel had more of a variety ofdinosaurs than the film. There were three dinosaurs that were mainly featured inthe novel and film. Among the three, was the famous Tyrannosaurs Rex, whichcaused the most damage and casualties. The T-Rex reaches about twenty totwenty-five feet in height and has gigantic bone crushing jaws with fleshtearing teeth. Another one was the Velociraptor, more commonly known as theraptor. The raptors were probably the smartest of the dinosaurs. The raptorreaches about ten to fifteen feet in height, has a long snout, and long deadlyclaws that would tear an animal or a human apart. The Compys were definitely thecreepiest because of how they kill their prey in packs. Although they look veryinnocent and harmless they can kill their prey in an instant. The Compy wasabout one to one and a half feet tall. They pretty much looked like a miniatureraptor. The Lost World from the novel to the film definitely had a high number ofcontrasts. The beginning as we know completely had no similarities at all. Thenovel and the film did not start to have comparison until the characters arrivedon Site-B. The characters did have some similarities, but mostly differences. More or less, the names were what made them similar more than anything. Thererolls in the novel and film were what differed the most. Nonetheless, the noveland film did seem to have very similar parts in one area, which was the settingof the islands. The terrain in the novel was practically identical to the one inthe film. The dinosaurs as well had many similarities, except for the fact thatthere was more of a variety in the novel than there was in the film. In the end,both version of the great story were spectacular. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Indepth Analysis of of Hector essays

Indepth Analysis of of Hector essays Hector is the mightiest warrior in the Trojan army. Although he meets his match in Achilles, he wreaks havoc on the Achaean army during Achilles' period of absence. He leads the assault that finally penetrates the Achaean ramparts, he is the first and only Trojan to set fire to an Achaean ship, and he kills Patroclus. Yet his leadership contains discernible flaws, especially toward the end of the epic, when the participation of first Patroclus and then Achilles reinvigorates the Achaean army. He demonstrates a certain cowardice when, twice in Book 17, he flees Great Ajax. Indeed, he recovers his courage only after receiving the insults of his comrades- first Glaucus and then Aeneas. He can often become emotionally carried away as well, treating Patroclus and his other victims with rash cruelty. Later, swept up by a burst of confidence, he foolishly orders the Trojans to camp outside Troy's walls the night before Achilles returns to battle, thus causing a crucial downfall the next d ay. But although Hector may prove overly impulsive and insufficiently prudent, he does not come across as arrogant or overbearing, as Agamemnon does. Moreover, the fact that Hector fights in his homeland, unlike any of the Achaean commanders, allows Homer to develop him as a tender, family-oriented man. Hector shows deep, sincere love for his wife and children. Indeed, he even treats his brother Paris with forgiveness and indulgence, despite the man's lack of spirit and preference for lovemaking over military duty. Hector never turns violent with him, merely aiming frustrated words at his cowardly brother. Moreover, although Hector loves his family, he never loses sight of his responsibility to Troy. Admittedly, he runs from Achilles at first and briefly entertains the delusional hope of negotiating his way out of a duel. However, in the end he stands up to the mighty warrior, even when he realizes that the gods have abandoned him. His refusal to flee e...

How Does Regenerative Braking in Hybrid Cars Work

How Does Regenerative Braking in Hybrid Cars Work Hybrids and all-electric vehicles create their own power for battery recharging through a process known as regenerative braking (regen mode). Weve explained what regenerative braking is and how the process works in general terms, but many folks are interested in the deeper nuts and bolts of electricity generation. They understand that in a hybrid or all-electric vehicle the word regenerative, in terms of regenerative braking, means capturing the vehicles momentum (kinetic energy) and turning it into electricity that recharges (regenerates) the onboard battery as the vehicle is slowing down and/or stopping. It is this charged battery that in turn powers the vehicles electric traction motor. In an all-electric vehicle, this motor is the sole source of locomotion. In a hybrid, the motor works in partnership with an internal combustion engine. But that motor is not just a source of propulsion, its also a generator. Any permanent magnet motor can operate as either a motor or generator. In all-electrics and hybrids, they are more precisely called a motor/generator (M/G). But the technologically curious want to know more, and theyll often ask How, and by what mechanism or process, is the electricity created? Its a good question, so before we get started explaining how M/Gs and regenerative braking work in hybrids and electric vehicles, it is important to have basic knowledge about how electricity is generated and how a motor/generator functions.   So How Does a Motor/Generator Work in an Electric or Hybrid Vehicle? No matter the vehicle design, there must be a mechanical connection between the M/G and the drivetrain. In an all-electric vehicle, there could be an individual M/G at each wheel or a central M/G connected to the drivetrain through a gearbox. In a hybrid, the motor/generator could be an individual component that is driven by an accessory belt from the engine (much like an alternator on a conventional vehiclethis is how the GM BAS system works), it could be a pancake M/G that is bolted between the engine and transmission (this is the most common setupthe Prius, for example), or it could be multiple M/Gs mounted inside the transmission (this is how the two-modes work). In any case, the M/G has to be able to propel the vehicle as well as be driven by the vehicle in regen mode. Propelling the Vehicle with the M/G Most, if not all, hybrids and electrics use an electronic throttle control system. When the throttle pedal is pushed, a signal is sent to the onboard computer, which further activates a relay in the controller that will send battery current through an inverter/converter to the M/G causing the vehicle to move. The harder the pedal is pushed, the more current flows under the direction of a variable resistance controller and the faster the vehicle goes. In a hybrid, depending upon load, battery state-of-charge and the design of the hybrid drivetrain, a heavy throttle will also activate the internal combustion engine (ICE) for more power. Conversely, lifting slightly on the throttle will decrease current flow to the motor and the vehicle will slow down. Lifting further or completely off the throttle will cause the current to switch direction - moving the M/G from motor mode to generator mode - and begin the regenerative braking process. Regenerative Braking: Slowing the Vehicle and Generating Electricity This is really what the regen mode is all about. With the electronic throttle closed and the vehicle still moving, all of its kinetic energy can be captured to both slow the vehicle and recharge its battery. As the onboard computer signals the battery to stop sending electricity (via the controller relay) and start receiving it (through a charge controller), the M/G simultaneously stops receiving electricity for powering the vehicle and starts sending current back to the battery for charging. Remember from our discussion on electromagnetism and motor/generator action: when an M/G is supplied with electricity it makes mechanical power, when its supplied with mechanical power, it makes electricity. But how does generating electricity slow the vehicle? Friction. Its the enemy of motion. The armature of the M/G is slowed by the force of inducing current in the windings as it passes over the opposing poles of the magnets in the stator (its constantly battling the push/pull of the opposing polarities). It is this magnetic friction that slowly saps the vehicles kinetic energy and helps scrub off speed.

CIS 599 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CIS 599 - Assignment Example The CIO days as the principal manager are long gone. Currently, both the IT manager and CIO need to be productive business leaders who are conversant with technology. Grasping the strategically aligned organization framework and applying its ideas will assist in releasing the management’s full potential as leaders (Lane, 2011). On covering people, the author’s contributors stress on the relevance of recruiting and collaboration supported by some great notions on talent management and employee development. The chapter on people also contains a vast amount of detail on the CIO role in each section as well as the career needs of the CIO (Lane, 2011). The book brilliantly handles the technology part by focusing on how better to handle the technology folder. Strategies such as assessing an organization IT portfolio effectiveness using on-budget and on-time percentages of projects to correspond with the needs to the actual functionality could be effective performance strategies. Other more efficient implementations of IT portfolio management is to assist the organization to prioritize IT projects so that fewer assets could be managed guaranteeing IT’s placement with maximizing IT investment and business priorities. In terms of compliance, the IT professionals need to be conscious of the compliance need with many different kinds of laws. Definite rules have to be used, and they may need supervisory reporting to agencies that control such compliance. There are different company policies necessary so as to heighten the effectiveness of the company profit making efforts. The book states that in the CIO world there is nothing more important than project quality. If one identifies himself or herself as a quality fanatic, they should put CIO weight behind project quality and adopt some simple strategies that project leaders, quality leaders, PMO, and business partners will gain

Relevant Information for Decision Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Relevant Information for Decision Making - Essay Example packing with this eventual end in mind would be something that the company would be losing money on in the short run; yet something that it was willing to doing order to both see to the needs of the environment as well as engage the customer with the idea that it was a primary focus of the brand to seek to develop a degree of sustainability. Naturally, as with any key decision, relevant and non-relevant costs both factors into such an implementation. As such, this brief analysis will consider the relevant and non-relevant costs associated with management’s decision with regards to aforementioned issue. The change mechanism which will be discussed herein took place over a period of two weeks during the beginning of September 2012. Of course the relevant costs associated with such a change will necessarily be those associated with the differential between the cost of continuing to provide the old form of packaging as opposed to the new. With respect to this differential, as has been noted, it will be more expensive for the firm to engage in the new form of packaging due to the fact that it will require new and emergent technology to be utilized in seeking to reduce the overall amount of waste generated as well as seeking to ensure that the waste that is generated is both photosynthetically degradable as well as biodegradable in enhanced ways. Similarly, the key non-relevant cost associated with this decision is the manner and degree to which the customer will readily embrace the new packaging and/or find themselves unhappy with the changes that have been wrought. This concern is of course highly relevant and important in an industry that is oftentimes subject to the dissatisfaction of consumers based on no other rational than a key component of expected value that they have grown accustomed to has changed or is slightly differentiated than before (Argawal et al 2011). Implementing such a change was not especially difficult from the employee approach as

Trace the changes and developments Essay Example for Free

Trace the changes and developments Essay This is a character study on a character from the play Hobsons Choice by Harold Brighouse. The character I am going to study is Hobsons principal bookmaker, Willie Mossop. The story of Hobsons choice is about Hobsons single mindedness, which is shown in the way he attempts to live his life, run his household, and to rule his daughters. It is seen In the eldest daughter Maggies dominance and the grooming of Will and not least in her finally, at the age of 30 standing up to her own father. The other two daughters Alice and Vickey also inherit this characteristic. What sets Maggie apart from the rest of her family is that she uses this quality not only for her benefit of others, not least though he is initially unconvinced, Willie Mossop. Thos play is also the story of the transformation of Willie. Willie was a working class man who worked in Henry Hobsons boot shop, he had little future until Maggie Hobson spotted talent and developed him into a successful man. When Willie is first seen in Act 1 page 9 he is described as a  Lanky fellow, about thirty, not naturally stupid but stunted mentally by a brutalised childhood. He is a raw material of a charming man but at present, it requires a very keen eye to detect his potentialities  One thing I notice about Willie is that he is an extremely shy and nervous man as Mrs Hepworth a member of the Upper class says  Take that  Willie in worry bends over rather expecting That to be a blow. Then he raises his head to find she is holding out a visiting card with her address apon it. As Willie tries to read what is written apon the card he finds he cant, his excuse is that the print is funny as he tries to hide his embarrassment. As Mrs Hepworth carries on talking Hobson thinks Willie has done something wrong and says. I assure it will never happen again  By this you can see Hobson doesnt have any faith in Willie. The thing is because, Mrs Hepworth has searched everywhere in Manchester for a pair of boots and there havent been any ones see has liked these are the best she has found. Therefor Mrs Hepworth asks Willie to let her know whether he ever moves shop, as she wants him to make her shoes for her  When the play begins nothing is said of Willie and no one talks of him until Mrs Hepworth spots a great talent in him. No one can really see Willies potential apart from Maggie, who can see beneath the surface of Will. Willie gets his first taste of praise when Mrs Hepworth demands to see him to congratulate him on his ability to make boots,  Ive tries every shop in Manchester, and these are the best made pair of boots Ive had. Now youll make my boots in future. This is not much to Willie, as he does not really take it in he just wants to disappear down the cellar where he can hide away from the company of other people.  Willie is very shy and has no confidence at all and he has no idea of his future, apart from work by himself quietly! When Will is approached by Maggie he is very scared of her and wants to go away from her. He wants no business with her at all because he is not good at communicating, he gets embarrassed easily and hates attention.  Other people just ignore Willie, to them he is just the young man that was employed to make the boots for Hobsons boot shop. Hobson thinks very little of him and underpays him as one part says:  Mrs H: The mans a treasure and I expect you underpay him. Hobson: Thatll do Willie. You can go.  Mr Hobson immediately dismisses him, as he knows that he does underpay him, and wants to change the subject, this shows how little Mr Hobson thinks of Willie.  The sisters also dont think much of Willie, and they go for the upper class rich people. When Maggie tells them that she intends to marry Will they are very shocked.  Alice: Youre going to marry Willie Mossop! Willie Mossop!  They are very shocked because Willie is a working class man and they are considered to be posh also they believe that if Willie is in the Family then no one else will want to marry them as they wont want Will as a brother in law. Maggie is in charge of the shop and she can see that Will is a very hard worker who deserves more in life.  Do you know what keeps this business on its legs? Two things: ones the good boots that sell themselves, the other is the bad boots other people make and I sell.  Maggie knows that this is how the shop works and without Will they would be nothing. She knows that he can get more out of life so she tries to make him marry her but he wont because he has been forced to marry someone else. This shows that he is pushed around and cant stick up for himself.  Will is almost pushed around with Maggie, as he has no confidence. Will is afraid to try to do well and he has no career plans for the future as he is too shy to try, he says  Nay, Id be feared to go in them fine places.

Death and Regeneration in Walt Whitmans Poem, When Lilacs Last In The

Death and Regeneration in Walt Whitman's Poem, When Lilacs Last In The Dooryard Bloom'd Whitman in 1865 wrote an elegy for President Lincoln entitled "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd." The "Lilacs" elegy is an outpouring of the deep sense of loss that Whitman felt after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. The President's death was a great shock to the poet; it overwhelmed him in a very personal way. Whitman recognized Lincoln's excellence and importance. When Whitman first heard of the assassination, it was the spring of the year and the lilacs were in bloom. The poem is heavily symbolic. In this first section, Whitman introduces two of the three central symbols used in development. The poet appears in company with the "Lilac blooming" and the "drooping star." The lilac represents love as well as resurrection and rebirth. The star symbolizes the slain Abraham Lincoln and comes to symbolize, also, the poet's heavy grief for him. The star, or Lincoln, once celestial and shining like a strong guide to those beneath it, has now "droop'd early." Lincoln i...

Principles of Hypnosis

The Principles of Hypnosis: CONTENTS Dylan Morgan THE BOOK is arranged in three parts: A, B and C. Part A, like the root system of a plant, is a foundation. It brings into mind some of the materials that will be needed for the remainder of the book. These chapters are only loosely connected to each other. Part B, like the stem of a plant, develops the central theme of the book, which is the key processes involved in Hypnotherapy. These chapters are strongly connected and should be read in order. Part C, like the leaves or fruit of a plant, spreads out again.These chapters are all developments from the ideas of Part B, but are not otherwise connected strongly. They can be read in almost any order, and are intended to stimulate thought in a variety of new directions. PART A Introduction. This describes the kind of book you are reading. It is a book which is devoted to presenting a unified theoretical view of the subject. In this way it is new and unique. It does not present any new fac ts, but rather arranges the facts in a new light. It presents a new paradigm for Hypnosis. Chapter 1: Clearing the Ground.Here we make sure that we know what certain key words will mean in this book. The word Hypnosis will refer ONLY to the subject and not to some hypothetical state or condition. Chapter 2: Hypnotic Phenomena. Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy are particular fields of human knowledge. We may delimit such fields of knowledge by their subject matter: the phenomena they deal with. A brief overview of some of the standard phenomena of Hypnosis is given to remind the reader of what the subjects involve. Chapter 3: Introducing Systems.A very important idea which is central to future development is that of systems, and particularly organic systems. This chapter introduces some of the basic properties of systems which will recur throughout the book, primarily their level of activity, and the most basic ways in which they might affect each other. An important shorthand notation is a lso presented. Chapter 4: Other Theoretical Approaches. It is useful then to examine various other theoretical approaches which have been taken to the subject. This overview will deepen the understanding of the newcomer.The range of theories is classified with an eye on the way in which they can be related to particular organic systems. It will be seen that the systems approach gives a way of unifying discussion and analysis of the whole field. The primary conclusion is that previous theoretical models have been based on noticing that Hypnotic techniques change the functioning of one particular system of the mind or body and then extrapolating to the idea that this particular system or change is the key or definitive feature of Hypnosis.Each theory therefore has some truth to teach, but none provides a complete picture. Chapter 5: Interlude – Analogous Processes. In this chapter the reader is reminded of many other organic systems with which he or she is familiar, such as org anisations, ecosystems, economies and families. The purpose is to activate in the mind certain patterns of organised thought; certain dynamic images; a certain organic approach to a subject which is a useful one when we develop the â€Å"Morganic† approach to Hypnotherapy. Chapter 6: A First Order Classification of Subsystems useful in Hypnotherapy.In this chapter we take a rather closer look at the central systems with which we deal in Hypnosis, in order to perform a rough classification. There are those subsystems which interface with the external environment, which can be classified into active, e. g. muscular, vocal; and responsive, e. g. vision, hearing. Then there are those subsystems which deal with the internal environment, e. g. emotions, internalised speech, visualisation and a variety of maintenance and defence systems. Important among this last class is the â€Å"flight or fight† process.This elementary classification is then used to illustrate the principl es along which Hypnotherapy can proceed. Chapter 7: Processes. This brief chapter takes a closer look at the matter of distinguishing processes as opposed to distinguishing structures. It also considers yet another complex system as an example of an organic system: an orchestra. The particular virtue of this example is that it provides us with a concrete image of what we mean by a process of a system: it is akin to the score of an orchestral work.Another very important point made, which is neatly illustrated by this example, is the distinction between the kinematics of a process – how a thing proceeds – and the dynamics – why it proceeds as it does. No amount of analysis of subsystems will in principle enable us fully to understand an organic process by merely analysing its subprocesses: we must also always be aware of the influence of larger systems and processes of which it is in turn a subprocess. Chapter 8: Tests. Anyone familiar with Hypnosis will know many â€Å"tests† of Hypnotic responsiveness.These are used in an attempt to determine how readily a potential subject will respond. The purpose of this chapter is to re-evaluate such tests within a systems framework as follows. The tests remain tests, but tests not of Hypnotic responsiveness but of how readily one system of the brain or body activates another in a given individual. Chapter 9: Inductions. â€Å"Hypnotic inductions† are traditionally thought of as processes that the Hypnotist goes through in order to â€Å"Hypnotise† the Subject.But they are mostly presented with little or no explanation of how they work, or of what is the purpose of their various parts. From a systems point of view it becomes much easier to see what the purpose of an induction is, and examples are given to illustrate this way of thinking. The result is a more precise, flexible and accurate approach to this area within the field of Hypnotherapy. PART B This central part of the book t akes a very close look at the process of Hypnotherapy, in more or less the order that it arises in real life, starting with the initial diagnosis.In doing this the value of the systems approach and the notation we have outlined in Part A become more apparent and develop real strength, throwing further light on how a variety of Hypnotic phenomena are produced. Chapter 10: The Process of Hypnotherapy. Stage 1: Elements of Diagnosis. This chapter starts to look at the process of diagnosis by looking at the presented symptom. It then describes the first step in a process of diagnosis which involves looking at precursors and resultants of the presented symptom. A precursor is a system, a change in the activity of which produces the symptom.A resultant is a system whose activity changes as a direct result of the symptom. In this way we build up a clear picture of the dynamics of the problem. The typical picture is a chain of systems each affecting the next, with the problem symptom somewh ere in the middle. A situation of considerable importance arises if the chain forms a loop, colloquially termed a vicious circle. Chapter 11: Feedback Loops – an Introduction. The notion of a vicious circle is part of a more general set of ideas which deal with what are known as feedback loops. These are of enormous importance in organic systems, and this chapter outlines their principles.We distinguish positive feedback loops from negative feedback loops, and increasing from decreasing feedback loops. Any of these can at times create the problem we are supposed to be resolving, or prevent a change we want to make, or, on the other hand, be the means by which we are removing a problem or ensuring that the changes we make are permanent. Chapter 12: The Process of Hypnotherapy. Stage 2: Consequences of Symptom Reduction. The next step in diagnosis involves looking at the question of what would happen if the problem symptom were to be removed.The importance of this comes from th e observation that the problem may well only remain in existence because of a negative feedback loop which ensures that any reduction in the problem leads to consequences which start it up again. It is essential in successful therapy that such situations be recognised. Chapter 13: Making Changes in Hypnosis. As a preliminary to deciding what to do to change things for the better this very important chapter builds on the analysis of cybernetic processes to emphasise a general and very central technique of Hypnotherapy.We start from the general principle that amplification is involved and the observation that organic systems are typically provided with a multitude of increasing positive feedback loops which act precisely like amplifiers. Many Hypnotic phenomena are shown to centre around the principle of deliberately creating and activating such loops. As a secondary but still important principle we note that in many other cases a pre-existent loop of this nature is present but is hel d in check by the activity of another system.In such cases it is enough to inactivate the controlling system in order to tap into the activating power of the loop. But even then the inactivation is likely to be achievable by means of establishing a positive feedback loop. Chapter 14: The Process of Hypnotherapy. Stage 3: Planning a Change. In this chapter attention is focused on the process of deciding a strategy in Hypnotherapy for reducing the problem symptom. There is no one way of tackling a given symptom, or helping a given person. But there is a strategy which has a good chance of producing a short list of the most effective and efficient ways.Chapter 15: Reinforcing Changes. In the context of Hypnotherapy it is important to ensure that changes to the Client are reinforced by factors in the environment. This amounts to ensuring that there will be an increasing positive feedback loop to make the change grow in strength. This is contrasted with a form of therapy in which any new behaviour is reinforced only by the therapist, which can result in undue dependence. The principle is that â€Å"Life must provide the reinforcer†. PART C In this third part of the book each chapter is relatively independent.Each takes up one particular aspect of our subject and looks at it from the perspective of the principles that have been developed. Chapter 16: Dynamic Rebound and Paired Systems. In this chapter we focus on a particular and very important principle of organic systems. This is the fact that to maintain homeostasis – a reasonable equilibrium – there evolve pairs of systems which act in opposite directions to maintain any important parameter within range. If one increases, then the other decreases. This is coupled to the principle that if we attempt to over-ride a system it will tend, over a few cycles, to strengthen.We may then often find that the most effective strategy in dealing with a problem is analogous to vaccination: we act in the sh ort term to produce the very thing which we are trying to prevent in the long term, with the aim of strengthening a natural system which will produce the required change. The converse of this is that a direct attempt to change a system is more analogous to drug therapy: it can be very effective in the short term, but in the long term weakens a natural system which would do the same job, thus creating potential long-term problems.Chapter 17: Dissociation. This chapter draws attention to the general point that in any complex system there are subsystems which may or may not affect each other. If two have no direct effect on each other they may be called totally dissociated. If the effect is only one way we may call it a partial dissociation. The dissociation may also be weak or strong – in the latter case there will be some third or higher system which acts so as to prevent the strongly dissociated systems from affecting each other.Examples are given of these phenomena and an in teresting point is made regarding the difference in emphasis between Hypnotists, who tend to create dissociation, and Hypnotherapists, who tend to eliminate it. Chapter 18: Indirect Questions. The asking of appropriate questions is a theme which runs through the whole book. One particular aspect of this is asking questions of the Client. Problems can arise when we want to know things about subsystems of which there is no conscious awareness. This chapter deals with some of the techniques specific to Hypnotherapy which deal with such a situation.In brief they involve bypassing the verbal system and connecting the system of interest to some other system (using the characteristic Hypnotic techniques of eliminating distractions, amplifying responses by means of feedback loops, etc. ). The alternative systems are usually the visual imagination or the motor or emotional systems. Examples are given to illustrate this. Chapter 19: Experimental Hypnotherapy. This chapter underlines the value of the very clear theoretical structure presented in this book when it comes to making meaningful experiments.Since it has proved impossible to find an agreed objective answer to the question, â€Å"When is a person Hypnotised? † the experimentalist who wishes to be scientific is working on shaky foundations. Within our framework, however, the basic question as to whether a particular system is active or not is much more tractable and answerable. It should then be possible to build a strong experimental structure on the basis of clearly defined experiments on the component parts of Hypnotic procedures. Chapter 20: Family Therapy.Family therapy is an area of human psychology which has already incorporated to some extent a systems way of thinking. The background to this is presented for the sake of its similarities to our systematic approach to Hypnotherapy. Some examples are used to illustrate the fact that the approach and notation developed in earlier chapters continue to b e precisely as valuable when the primary system is a family and not an individual. The general point is made that the practice of a therapist is characterised by the choice of systems he recognises as important.The different fields of family therapy are associated with different assumptions as to the subsystems of importance. The same holds for Hypnotherapists: the subsystems they regard as important characterise and at times limit them. Chapter 21: Schools of Psychotherapy. Different schools of psychotherapy tend to focus their attention on different subsystems of the human mind, and apply different techniques to them. This chapter very briefly outlines some of the major approaches in order to provide an idea of the context of Hypnotherapy.It is concluded that Hypnotherapy, in the sense of this book, is broader than most forms of psychotherapy as it may deal with systems of many kinds and all levels from the comparatively simple reflexes of the nervous system up to social systems. It involves a prescriptive diagnostic process, a crisp theoretical framework, a sense of the dynamics of feedback systems and a wide variety of procedures to change them. Chapter 22: Activity. This chapter presents a precise scientific definition of the key notion of activity which has run through this book.The activity of a system is defined as the rate at which it increases the entropy of the universe – a quantity which is in principle always measurable or calculable. It also has the property of always being positive. It is approximately proportional to the power output of the system in watts. If we wish to extrapolate the notion of activity to socio-economic systems (which are also organic) then a more useful measure will be the rate at which money is spent: ? /sec. Chapter 23: Analogies and Metaphors The use of analogies or metaphors in Hypnotherapy is common and important.In this chapter their use is related to the general principles running through the book. The key ide a is that the principles allow us to uncover the abstract dynamic pattern of the problem and solution. The same abstract pattern may be embodied in many particular forms, each of which thereby provides an analogy for all the others. In helping a Client we generate an analogy which draws on his or her experience, and present the change that is required to resolve the problem in terms of the related change in the analogy.These ideas also throw some further light onto the nature of the theory of this book: although many analogies have been presented for Hypnotic phenomena, their purpose is to enable the reader to grasp the general or abstract principles which are involved in both Hypnosis and the other fields from which the examples or analogies are drawn. Chapter 24: Consciousness. This brief chapter gives an outline of an approach to the very difficult question of consciousness.The essence of the approach is the theme, which runs through this book, of the twin perspective on any syst em both as being part of a larger system or systems and also as containing subsystems. The point is made that when we ask of a system a question based on â€Å"How? â€Å", then we are looking for an answer in terms of its subsystems. On the other hand when we ask a question based on â€Å"What? † we are looking for answers in terms of its supersystem or supersystems. Anything like a full understanding of a system can only be obtained by answering both the â€Å"How? † and the â€Å"What? † questions.Applying these principles to human consciousness, which is taken to involve the highest order of systems within the individual brain, leads inevitably to the conclusion that although research has gone a long (though not the whole) way towards answering the â€Å"How? † questions, the answers to the â€Å"What? † questions must lie in a higher system, which must at least include very many other human beings. The fact that traditionally the â€Å"What ? † questions regarding human life have been answered in terms of higher systems than the individual human being is therefore accepted to be the right approach in principle.Chapter 25: Mathematics. This brief chapter points towards the way in which the analysis of Hypnotic phenomena promoted in the body of the book could be developed in such a way that it would connect up with the large existing body of mathematical theory of cybernetic and biological systems. A single very small example of mathematical modelling is given in the hope that even the non-mathematician may get an idea of the potential of such an approach. CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY Home | Principles | Top of page PART A The Principles of Hypnosis: INTRODUCTIONThis describes the kind of book you are reading. It is a book which is devoted to presenting a unified theoretical view of the subject. In this way it is new and unique. It does not present any new facts, but rather arranges the facts in a new light. It presents a new paradigm for Hypnosis. WHAT KIND of book is this? This question is an important one. In order to get the best out of a book we need to approach it with the right mind-set. This book is a paradigm-changing book: it aims to present a fresh way of looking at the field of Hypnotherapy.It was in 1962 that Kuhn introduced the notion of a paradigm shift to describe a process that has happened in many fields of science at many times. The second edition of his book will be found in the list of References under Kuhn (1970)Bib. It concerns a fundamental change in the way in which the phenomena of the field are viewed, and consequently in the way things are done. In Kuhn's view such a change has the nature of a revolution. His book itself introduced a paradigm shift in the field of the theory of scientific ideas.A good survey of his ideas and of those of others who do not agree with him is given by Casti (1989)Bib. Since this book presents a paradigm shift it is a book of ideas. It will therefore stand or fall on the success of these ideas. They will be a success if they help others to make sense of Hypnotherapy. We may contrast this with some books which it is NOT. It is NOT a book which claims to present any new FACTS about Hypnosis. If it were it would contain a number of detailed accounts of specific new experiments and their results: it does not. It is NOT a compendium or encyclopaedia of known facts about Hypnotherapy.If it were, it would contain thousands of references to the work of thousands of other workers and what they have discovered: it does not. It would also be a great deal thicker. It is NOT a history. If it were it would deal exclusively with ideas and practices from the past. It does not. It is NOT a handbook of techniques. Although various techniques will be mentioned, they are there only to illustrate and illuminate the theory. A handbook would aim to give extensive lists of techniques. This does not. It is NOT a â€Å"Teach yourself Hypnother apy† book.Although you will learn a lot about Hypnotherapy, this book will not, in itself, qualify you to be a Hypnotherapist. That requires in addition a lot of practical experience and a lot of detailed information that you would need to acquire from the kinds of books mentioned above. It is NOT one of those Elixir of Life books which claims to have found some totally new and remarkably simple method of solving all human ills. It is none of those things. It IS a book which aims to change in a fundamental and useful way the manner in which we think about the subjects of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy.Books of this nature are rare – and they are exciting. Not only does it give a new perspective, it generates new insights into the processes used. Furthermore it leads to a clear and original description of the process of diagnosis in Hypnotherapy – something which is notably absent in other books on the subject. The association of Hypnosis with therapy is not new. By th at name it was first used by the Scottish doctor, James Braid, then practising in Manchester, in the 1840s. Related practices, under other names, were used in healing by Mesmer and his ollowers in the 17th century and by priest and shaman as far back as the dawn of recorded history. Over the centuries many books have been written about Hypnosis in the context of therapy. The common characteristic of all these books is that they deal extensively with HOW to create the many phenomena we associate with Hypnotism but give very little idea of WHY the methods work. There is very little theory. They are therefore of little help when a method does NOT work, which is a matter of some importance to the practitioner of Hypnotherapy. The early days of most sciences are marked by this same feature.Early chemistry consisted of a collection of recipes, â€Å"If you add this to that then the following happens†¦ † There was no real understanding of WHY or HOW it happened. Early medicine was the same. It had a large collection of procedures and treatments, but only vague ideas as to HOW they worked (when they did). In the light of our present understanding, moreover, we can see that the theoretical ideas they did have – such as the Hippocratic idea of Humours – were inadequate and faulty in the extreme, leading for example to quite unnecessary and potentially dangerous bloodletting on a massive scale.When a science has reached a certain degree of maturity, as a result of the accumulated experiences of many workers, there comes a stage in which partial, and hard-won, experiences may coalesce to form one uniform picture which makes sense of a whole field. An example of this was the introduction into chemistry of the atomic theory by Dalton (1808)Bib, which was a big paradigm shift and the foundation of all subsequent understanding in the field.It is the contention of this book that Hypnotherapy has come of age, and that it is now possible to describe in some detail a theoretical framework within which Hypnotic phenomena can be produced and understood in a systematic way. This book is written with three classes of readers in mind. The central class consists of students: people who are learning the skills of Hypnotherapy. There are increasing numbers of these as this form of therapy becomes more popular. They can expect to find this book a unique aid to understanding what it is that they are learning to do.On one side of these are individuals who already have an extensive understanding of Hypnotherapy, whether as practitioners or as experimentalists. For these individuals this book may be seen as a codification of ideas that are floating in the pool of common consciousness of Hypnotherapists in this day and age: it crystallises these ideas; it makes them more definite and clear; it unites them in a common pattern. Some of the ideas presented here have already been published in journals read by professionals and found a ready response .The paradigm shift involved does not involve the shattering of existing ideas for most professionals. It is more a matter of drawing together all that we know and do in a systematic way and then building on that foundation a strong new understanding. On the other side of the centre is the group of intelligent readers who want to know what Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy are all about, though with no intention of using them in person. This will include students of psychology and medicine, but also many of the millions of people who like to know â€Å"how things work†, and in particular â€Å"how people work†.Hypnotherapy is intimately involved with the ways in which people's minds and bodies work: arguably the most fascinating subject for everyone outside their own speciality. With this readership in mind the language has been kept comparatively simple. A minimum level of specialised vocabulary is used, and a minimum amount of prior knowledge assumed. Having said that, it ha s been my experience that the concepts are grasped most readily by men and women who are working at the higher levels of many fields such as management, education or consultancy.They seem naturally to think in terms of systems and processes: an ability that I suppose is correlated with degree of intelligence. It may well be then that a certain level of intelligence is a prerequisite to grasping the ideas in their abstract form. However, I have supplied many concrete examples to minimise this problem. The theoretical framework described here, although proposed as a basis for understanding Hypnotherapy, is in fact rich and powerful enough also to provide a fresh perspective on a very much wider arena of human behaviour, whether individual or in groups such as families or organisations.It is hoped that it will open up new ways of thinking to others as it has to the author. It will seem to outsiders that the Hypnotherapist does not hold a central position in the world of ideas: I certai nly thought so myself at one time. But I have gradually come to realise that in terms of understanding how people work it is a position second to none. This is because it combines the maximum opportunity for observation with the maximum opportunity for making changes and seeing the results. The Hypnotherapist sees people from all ranks of life. People open up and disclose their innermost feelings and houghts to the Hypnotherapist, so that a full picture emerges of the entire course of people's lives. The Hypnotherapist is not restricted to working with people in whom there is a severe mental malfunction as are Psychiatrists for the most part. He or she is instead often working with healthy and typical people who want help with a single problem in an otherwise satisfactory life or to improve their performance in some way. Consequently the Hypnotherapist can form a clear idea of the range of ways that people normally deal with life: there is not the Psychiatrist's exclusive emphasis o n severe malfunction.Compared with many other related fields such as counselling or psychoanalysis, the Hypnotherapist is expected to a far greater degree actively to change things: a variety of things in a variety of people. This seems to me to be of far-reaching importance. The scientific revolution which began around the seventeenth century was a result of men who were not, in the Greek tradition, restricted to contemplation and reflection in the pursuit of truth, but who had hands-on experience.There is nothing like trying to make a change and failing, to drive home the fact that you do not understand what you are doing. When your livelihood depends on making successful changes it concentrates the mind still better. If, on the other hand, it is possible to take an ivory-tower approach and to build a theory on the basis of what has been merely read, then there is little chance of any immediate feedback to prove the theory wrong. Later on in this book we will find much on the impo rtance of feedback loops.In the present context I will observe that improvement in any skill or ability depends on a feedback loop in which execution is followed by an assessment of how successful that execution has been, which is followed by an appropriate modification and further executions. That is how the Wright brothers learned to fly. That is how anyone learns to play golf. That is how babies learn to co-ordinate their limbs. That is how science has grown. The Hypnotherapist is in the position of having immediate feedback, perhaps within minutes, quite usually within an hour and always within days to test how successful he or she has been in effecting a change.As a matter of contrast, many Psychoanalysts work over periods of years with a Client. The feedback is so slow, I wonder it can ever have any effect on practice. Research Psychologists are disciplined to work with a very small area of human psychology; each experiment can take months or years, and can lead only to knowin g a lot about very little. Psychologists who build theories on the results of the work of such painstaking research inevitably spend most of their lives in libraries and laboratories: they have little chance to get any feedback by putting their ideas into any kind of practice.Many counsellors are constrained by present conventions to be non-directive: that is to say they are supposed NOT to make direct changes, but rather to somehow create an environment in which the Clients will make changes for themselves. Since there is so little action, there is limited scope for feedback also. In addition, many such professionals are working in salaried positions: which has two drawbacks.One is that they involve extensive costs in terms of the time that has to be spent on the organisation – the committees, the paperwork, the administration, etc. – which reduces either or both of the time available for original thought and the time spent dealing with clients or patients. The second is that since the salary cheque is only very, very loosely connected with success at helping people as contrasted with making a good impression on the System, there is not the same direct and immediate incentive to improve at the cutting edge of the work.The Professional Hypnotherapist – by which I mean an intelligent man or woman who devotes his or her whole life to the field, not someone who is a professional in some other field like medicine and does a little Hypnosis on the side – is, by contrast, in a perfect position to devote ALL his or her time to studying and changing the functioning of other people with ample and immediate feedback available. This is the optimum position to be in in any field.I, personally, have adopted and then discarded because they failed me in practice, hundreds of different partial theoretical structures before finally evolving that which is presented in this book, which has passed the hard test of day-to-day work and also exposure to m y professional peers. My initial training and doctorate were in Mathematics with a strong leaning to Theoretical Physics. These force you to think clearly and deeply and honestly about the structures and dynamics of things. Ideas must be as crisp as possible: woolliness of thought is a sin.When I plunged into the world of Hypnotherapy, I found none of the precision of thought I was used to, no systematic approach, no theory worthy of the name. I also found my ego very badly hit every time I failed to help someone. Furthermore I had no salary: Clients are not reimbursed by Health Insurance Policies for Hypnotherapy as yet; neither can they get it free on the National Health Service. When Clients are paying with their own money, they require evidence that the service is worth it. And this is even more true in Yorkshire.The fact that if you make no progress then you make no money concentrates the mind wonderfully, I find. If an idea does not work you reject it at once. Those that survi ve and evolve in this tough environment are fit and strong and lean and healthy. I hope you will find these qualities throughout this book. Finally I come to a small matter of how to refer to the approach to Hypnotherapy which has evolved in this way. In my first articles for the European Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, I referred to it as a â€Å"Systems-oriented Paradigm for Hypnotic Phenomena†.This is a bit of a mouthful, and the Journal used, as a more useful label, the phrase, â€Å"the Morgan Proposition†. Neither of these lends itself to the formation of a useful adjective: â€Å"systematic† is a possible one, but this is too general a word. As you read the book, you will find that central to the approach is the notion of the functioning of complex organic systems. An alternative adjective could therefore be â€Å"organic†, but this again is too general. Finally I stumbled on an adjective which is concise, reminds us of this aspect of the theory, is specific and easily memorable: â€Å"Morganic†.So when, from time to time, it is necessary to distinguish between the approach of this book and other approaches I will use this coined word as a convenient shorthand. Home | Contents | Next Chapter CHAPTER 1 Clearing the Ground Here we make sure that we know what certain key words will mean in this book. The word Hypnosis will refer ONLY to the subject and not to some hypothetical state or condition. OUR TOOLS for understanding are ideas and words. To do a good job tools must be clean and clear. This short chapter does some of this necessary preparation.Let us begin with the word â€Å"hypnosis†. It has been used in a number of senses. It is sometimes said that a person is â€Å"in hypnosis†. Or it might be used in a phrase such as â€Å"experimental hypnosis† to mean a field of expertise. In this book the words â€Å"hypnosis† and â€Å"hypnotherapy† will refer ONLY to fields of knowledge and skill. They are in the same class as the words â€Å"chemistry†, â€Å"medicine† (as a discipline), â€Å"physics†, etc. The reasons why this is important will become clearer later. Briefly it is because the other use conjures up a picture of a subject in a unique â€Å"state of hypnosis†.Detailed experiments have failed to establish any way of defining such a state or distinguishing it from other, â€Å"non-hypnotic states†. For the same reason the phrase â€Å"an hypnotic trance† will not be used. On the other hand a field of knowledge is comparatively easy to define. It is characterised by an interest in a certain class of phenomena. The field defined by interest in the weather can be labelled â€Å"meteorology†, of interest in the past, â€Å"history†, in books, â€Å"literature†, in the nerves, â€Å"neurology† and so on. Notice that it is the phenomena that define the subject and not the theories or the pra ctices.For example, the techniques used in chemistry have varied enormously over time. Modern equipment is vastly different from nineteenth century equipment: Bunsen didn't start using his burner until 1855! Chemical theories have also changed enormously over time: Dalton's atomic theory only goes back to the beginning of the nineteenth century. In a similar way both the ideas that people have had about the field of Hypnosis and the methods they have used have changed considerably, but the phenomena of interest have remained relatively fixed.What the Hypnotist is interested in is a certain class of changes in the functioning of the mind and body brought about in a non-physical and naturalistic way. Later on we will list in more detail most of the common such changes, but here we will note a few such things: analgesia – a loss of a sense of pain; amnesia -an induced forgetfulness; involuntary movements induced by suggestion alone; and distortion of the messages of the senses, in which a lemon may be made to taste like an apple, a clearly visible object may not be perceived, or an object may be â€Å"seen† though not present.The Hypnotherapist is more interested in a rather different class of changes, such as recovery of lost memories, removal of old habits or patterns of thought, elimination of tensions, changes in perceptions to bring them more in line with reality, changes in mood and so on: in brief to change things which are perceived as â€Å"problems†. When we say that these changes are to be produced in a non-physical way, it implies that the changes are NOT produced by the application of drugs, electricity, magnetism or other physical agency.To say that the changes are produced in a naturalistic way implies that neither are they produced by some strange or unnatural force, power or phenomenon. Hypnotic phenomena are a result of using the natural modes of functioning of the mind and body, but in focused or particular or unusual ways, to produce the desired changes. It is because we are using only modes of functioning which can exist naturally that no hard line can be drawn between a â€Å"state of hypnosis† and any other â€Å"state† or mode of functioning of a person. For many people this point cannot be emphasised too much.In the uninformed mind there is a simple picture that being â€Å"under hypnosis† is rather like going â€Å"under† an anaesthetic: a sudden and dramatic departure of consciousness. While the stage Hypnotist will at times work (with his better Subjects) to approximate to this state of affairs, it has been found by careful experiment that the same phenomena which can be produced under those conditions can also be produced under conditions where there is no such dramatic change. A related error can be typified by a recent enquiry to me: â€Å"Can Hypnosis be used to improve my memory, so that I could pick up and learn a telephone directory? This is effectively equ ivalent to being able effortlessly to be a chess Master, a scratch golfer, etc. The normal rules of functioning of the mind and body demand that practice, and a lot of it, is necessary to develop such skills. Hypnotic techniques may be used to increase motivation, to reduce distracting thoughts and to optimise the results of practice, but they are always working on natural systems which have their own rules and therefore limitations. You cannot make a silk purse out of a sow's ear.There is a lot of power and potential in Hypnotic techniques, but they are not magic: not contrary to the laws of physics, chemistry or neurology. It is easily possible to get a person to feel themselves too heavy to get off a chair. But it will not result in any extra pressure on the chair. Two other words that will be used in this book are Subject and Client. The former will normally refer to a person whose functioning is being changed by a Hypnotist, and the latter by a Hypnotherapist. Some Hypnotherapi sts use the term Patient in place of Client. SUMMARYHYPNOSIS is the area of knowledge concerned with certain naturalistic changes in the functioning of the mind and nervous system. HYPNOTHERAPY is the application of such knowledge to help individuals with a related class of problems. We will not use the concept of a â€Å"state of hypnosis† in this book. Home | Contents | Introduction | Next Chapter CHAPTER 2 Hypnotic Phenomena IN ORDER TO GET a clearer view of the Subject matter of Hypnosis we will next look at some of the more common phenomena which have been reliably produced in certain people in an experimental setting as well as by Hypnotherapists or stage Hypnotists.There is no real disagreement about the existence of these phenomena. Others may be added to the list below and there can be disagreement over the precise nature of what is happening in them and also about theories designed to explain how they are happening. But there is general agreement that the phenomena do characterise the field of Hypnosis. In each of these examples it must be remembered that no claim is made that the particular phenomenon can be produced with equal ease in everyone, nor that it will be possible in everyone.Remember that we are dealing with naturalistic phenomena. The fact that some individuals are colour blind does not invalidate the phenomenon of full colour vision in others. The fact that some individuals have poor memories and take a lot of time to learn things does not negate the achievements of certain individuals who can memorise enormous amounts quickly. The fact that not everybody can run a mile in under 6 minutes does not affect the fact that a great number could, with practice, or that there are many who can run it in under 4 minutes.Neither does the fact that the world record time has been reducing allow us to deduce that a 2 minute mile will some day be possible. The general principles of ALL human behaviour or achievement are that there is a range in the capacity of different individuals to produce certain behaviour; that anyone's capacity can be improved by proper practice; and that there are natural limits to what can be done. If Hypnosis dealt with phenomena which did NOT obey these principles it would be a very strange Subject indeed.Consequently in reading the following, remember always that each example is something that can be produced to a high degree quite easily in some people, to a lesser degree and/or in more time in others, and finally to no significant extent in any reasonable time with yet others. It is also a fact that there is only a loose correlation between an individual's capacity to produce one phenomenon and another, rather in the way that if you are very good at geography there is a better than average chance that you will also be good at history, but it is far from certain.The stage Hypnotist works within these constraints of nature by selecting from the audience, by means of various tests, those individ uals in which the phenomena of interest can be produced most easily. The Hypnotherapist, who has to work with a wider range of individuals, will tend to use more time and a variety of methods in order to offset the limitations that may arise in a particular individual. Some Hypnotic Phenomena In the following list the phenomena are grouped into those areas of the brain or nervous system or body which they involve.VOLUNTARY MUSCULAR SYSTEM At one time it was a popular part of a demonstration of stage Hypnotism for the Hypnotist to get a Subject to go completely rigid. So great was this rigidity that the Subject could be supported on two chairs by his head and heels alone. And as if this were not enough the Hypnotist would be able to sit or stand on the supported body with no complaint from the Subject or yielding of his body! This has now been banned in the UK by the Hypnotism Act of 1952, as it could lead to physical damage.At the opposite extreme from this, it is comparatively easy to induce in those same large muscles of the body an extreme limpness or relaxation which is so great that the Subject feels unable to move them. In between these extremes there are a variety of phenomena in which a large group of muscles – those of an arm, perhaps – will move in response not to the perceived will of the Subject, but rather in response to verbal suggestions from the Hypnotist. INVOLUNTARY MUSCULAR SYSTEM There are many muscles in the body which we do not normally expect to be able to control at will.These include the heart, which is one big muscle, the small muscles which expand and contract to control the flow of blood through veins and arteries, and the muscles of the stomach and alimentary system which push the food along its way. Hypnotic techniques have been shown to be able to affect these. Heart rate may be increased quite a lot, and reduced to a lesser extent. The flow of blood can be altered so that, for example, it can be increased to warm t he feet or decreased to cool them. The flow of blood to the face can be altered in order to induce or reduce blushing. And so on. SENSORY SYSTEMSAnother popular phenomenon for the stage Hypnotist is to get a Subject to eat an onion under the impression that it is an apple. In order for this to be possible – and with every indication of enjoyment – there must have been changes in that person's perception of taste, smell and also vision. In general it is possible to change the messages from any sense. The sense of touch can be altered either so that a certain kind of numbness results in which a touch cannot be felt at all, or, conversely, so that it reports the presence of a stimulus which has no basis in reality – for example, that an insect is crawling over the skin.Glove anaesthesia is a term often used in Hypnotherapy to describe a situation in which nothing is felt in one or both hands up to the wrist – as if a thick glove is being worn which makes it impossible to feel things. The related sense of pressure can likewise be affected, all the way from feeling no sensation of the pressure of the body on the chair to a great sensation of pressure on the chest which has no outward cause, for example. The sense of smell may be affected either to produce anosmia – the absence of all sensation of smell – or to change the perceptions so that one smell becomes interpreted as another.A pleasant scent can be made to smell like hydrogen sulphide – rotten eggs – or ammonia like a rose. The related sense of taste can likewise be affected to change either the quality of the taste or its intensity. Sweet can turn to sour and vice versa, or can simply vanish. The sense of hearing can be affected so that the Subject fails to respond at all to a certain class of sounds, while remaining aware of others – for example, he may remain aware of the Hypnotist's voice, but unaware of anyone else or any background noise.The sense of sight can be affected in a similar way so that things which are there may not be noticed and things which are not present are visualised as vividly as if they were there. A popular stage trick is to give the Subject â€Å"X-ray glasses† which seem to be able to see through the clothes of anyone looked at. The sense of orientation may be altered so that, for example, a feeling of lying at a steep angle can be induced in a person lying horizontally, or a feeling of falling in someone who is standing vertically.The sense of temperature may be affected so that a part or whole of the body is perceived as being either hotter or colder than it is in reality, though there is no change measurable by a thermometer. The sense of pain, though it is so much more acute than the other senses, follows the same pattern. Because of its importance it has received a great deal of experimental attention and the basic facts have been established conclusively. It is indeed true that a per son can be induced by Hypnotic procedures to be consciously aware of less pain in a given circumstance, or, on the other hand, of more.HABITUAL SYSTEMS A typical habit is a complex pattern of behaviour which is carried out automatically with little or no conscious thought. Although it may involve the same groups of muscles that are involved in the phenomena mentioned above, it is really a higher order phenomenon of the nervous system. Such habits are regulated primarily by a part of the brain called the cerebellum – and altering habits is therefore altering the functioning of a part of the brain.For the stage Hypnotist the task is often to establish a new habit, such as standing and declaiming something when a certain piece of music plays. For a Hypnotherapist the task is the more difficult one of preventing a long-established habit, such as smoking or nail-biting, from continuing. EMOTIONAL SYSTEMS The emotions tend to shade into each other more gradually than do the senses: it is hard to put a clear line between a pleasure and happiness in the way that we can distinguish touch and pain, for example.But the principles we have seen above in the senses continue to hold in the sphere of the emotions. Whether we consider love, liking, excitement, pleasure, happiness, or fear, anger, grief, guilt, depression or any other shade of feeling, it is true that they can be induced or suppressed or altered in quality. Although feelings do not seem to us to be localised, in terms of our physiology they are primarily a function of a certain structure in the brain called the limbic system. So in altering emotions we are again dealing with a part of the brain.This part is in direct contact with a small gland in the brain called the thalamus, which produces hormones which in turn affect other endocrine glands in the body. The best known of these are the adrenal gland and the ovaries or testes. If a person is induced by some Hypnotic technique to feel fear or excitement then the adrenal glands respond as a part of the process. This underlines the fact that Hypnotic techniques can also affect the functioning of the endocrine system. Another example might be the arousal or suppression of sexual feelings, which would be accompanied by changes in the level of sexual hormones.RELATIONSHIPS Of very great importance to most people are their relationships with others. A relationship is a complex pattern of feelings and habitual actions and responses in two or more people, so it involves systems which have been mentioned above. Very often the problem presented to the Hypnotherapist lies in this area, and the task is to sort out what parts of the complex pattern it is best to change in order to improve matters. Insofar as it is possible to alter feelings and actions by Hypnotic techniques, it is by the same token possible to alter the course of a relationship.IMMUNE SYSTEM Scattered through the literature on the subject there are accounts of the use of Hypno tic techniques to influence the body's ability to react to a wide range of illnesses, including cancer. Perhaps the best evidence underpinning the validity of these reports is the very well-attested fact of the Placebo Response. This simply says that for virtually any illness there will be a certain proportion of sufferers who will recover significantly better if they are given something that they believe will work, even if it is totally neutral medicinally.Insofar as Hypnotic techniques can evidently change an individual's belief about all manner of things, as we have seen, there is every reason to suppose that it can act as well as, if not better than the beliefs involved in the Placebo Response to help people's bodies to heal themselves. MENTAL SYSTEMS We have seen that emotions and habits are both properly seen to be functions of the brain, though they may not be thought to be so by the man in the street. We will now consider a few more functions of the brain which are more obvi ously so.Memory is a particular function of the brain which has also been demonstrably affected by Hypnotic procedures. It, also, can be enhanced, inhibited, made selective or falsified. On the stage a popular alteration is to make the Subject forget some quite simple thing, like the name of a colour or the number 7. The Subject may struggle very hard to recall the missing fact but fail totally. An alternative is to get him to believe that something is true or has happened which has not. If a Subject is induced to â€Å"remember† that another person has cheated him in some way, he will start to act in a way which is amusing to the audience.But the serious side to this is that certain individuals can be influenced to believe that they have remembered episodes or early sexual abuse which never in fact happened. The problems that can arise from this are termed the False Memory Syndrome. Concentration is another high-order mental faculty which can be intimately affected by Hypnot ic techniques. It is not uncommon to come across cases in which the Subject responds exclusively to the voice of the Hypnotist, and seems totally oblivious to all else. This is a particular case of total concentration.Equally it can be possible to make concentration on any subject very difficult. More generally the entire mental framework can be altered, as when a Subject can be induced to imagine himself to be Elvis Presley, or some other person, and act, respond and answer questions from the viewpoint of that person. Since this book is not encyclopaedic there is no need to list ALL possibilities. Enough has now been said to indicate something of the range of changes that have been recorded. SUMMARY Hypnotic procedures have been demonstrated in laboratories and elsewhere to produce a wide range of changes in the functioning of human beings.Something of the range has been listed above. Home | Contents | Previous Chapter | Next Chapter Principles of Hypnosis: CHAPTER 3 Introducing Sy stems A very important idea which is central to future development is that of systems, and particularly organic systems. This chapter introduces some of the basic properties of systems which will recur throughout the book, primarily their level of activity, and the most basic ways in which they might affect each other. An important shorthand notation is also presented. IN THE LAST CHAPTER the word â€Å"system† frequently arose.In our growing understanding of the functioning of body and brain, scientists have come to recognise the nature and modes of functioning of many systems in the body. There are the nervous system, the digestive system, the cardiovascular system, the limbic system, the endocrine system, the immune system, the muscular system and so on. Each of these systems has an identifiable structure. The nerves are the physical structure of the nervous system; the heart plus veins and arteries and their associated small muscles form the structure of the cardiovascula r system, and so on.But equally, if not more, important are the processes which the system undergoes. The existence of the heart has been known since prehistoric time. But the fact that it circulates the blood only became understood with William Harvey (1578-1637) in the early seventeenth century. The existence of the major planets of our solar system was also known from prehistoric times, but the principles of their movements were only properly described by Newton (1642-1727) in the latter half of the seventeenth century.To get any proper idea of a system we must know how it works; what kinds of processes it undergoes; what are the principles governing those processes. The difference is related to the difference between seeing a thing in static terms and dynamic terms. This great change has taken place in a multitude of sciences, and each time has heralded a great increase in understanding. Darwin's Theory of Evolution is an example of a change from a view which held that species w ere fixed to one in which they changed in certain ways for specific reasons.The theory of continental drift has similarly transformed geology. As a simple analogy illustrating this matter from another angle, consider the position of a car mechanic. He might well be able to put quite a few things right by following a few tried and tested procedures that he has found to be effective in some instances. But unless he understands the principles governing the function of the various parts of the machine, his ability is going to be strictly limited: he will have no real idea of why the changes he makes are effective, and so his work will remain rather hit and miss.He has to know how and why the parts move or operate in order to understand things properly. It will be clear from the last chapter that the field of interest of Hypnotherapy is intimately involved with the functioning of effectively all the major systems of the mind and body. In order to understand what we are doing we are there fore forced to give thought to understanding the nature of these organic systems, and in particular to understanding their modes of functioning and interacting. There is no option. The phenomena are clear. That they involve changes to systems of the body is clear.That the changes are not to their structure (we are not surgeons) is clear. That we change the behaviour is clear. Consequently we are dealing with the dynamics of complex organic systems. If we are to form an idea of the principles of Hypnosis we are therefore forced to start with a picture, however simple, of the dynamics of the organic or biological subsystems of human beings. The study of the dynamics of organic systems in general is a growth area: it is highly relevant to economics, ecology, sociology and biology, and has been approached from all those areas.I have not been able to find an existing approach, however, which is well-adapted to the kinds of systems and dynamics involved in Hypnosis. The following language and methodology is therefore designed specifically to be useful in our field, though it can be generalised to others. How does one start to design a dynamical theory? It is a tried and trusted principle that one should as far as possible work with observables. To base a theory on unobservables is to be working in the dark: there is no way of verifying if the theory is right or wrong and no way of refining it.What observables therefore can we say are applicable to all the systems of mind and body in which we are interested? The answer which I will adopt is: the level of activity. It is possible, by means of very fine electrodes, to measure quite precisely the level of activity of a single neuron (nerve cell). It is easily possible to measure the mean activity of the heart – the heart rate. It is possible to get a good measure of the level of activity of a muscle by means of seeing what force it can resist, or by its oxygen consumption.The overall level of activity of a region of the brain can be estimated by measuring the rise in temperature of that region (a method used over a century ago) or more modern methods involving measuring electrical activity (EEG) or local blood flow and metabolism – positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The activity of various glands can be estimated by measuring the concentration of the hormones they produce in the blood. And so on.Although the functions of the various systems are of course distinct, we can in each case form at last a qualitative and very often a precise quantitative measure of its activity at a given time, and hence how its activity is changing with time. Later, in Part C, we will discuss a more exact definition of activity, applicable to all systems, but at this introductory level it is enough to note that the intuitively clear notion of activity is something that is in principle observable for systems of the body. We will therefore base our theory on the notion o f the activity of a system.Let us now take a very brief look at a simple Hypnotic process with this idea in mind. A fairly typical Hypnotic induction as used by a Hypnotherapist today may proceed as follows. First of all the Subject's eyes may be induced to close, by one of a number of methods which usually involve fixing the gaze on some point, and some form of verbal suggestion that eyes will get tired until they close. However it is done, it is clear that the result must be a great reduction in the activity of the whole of the part of the visual system involved in viewing the external world.With the eyes closed all the nerves from the retinas to the visual cortex will become quiescent. A typical second step is to encourage physical relaxation. This again may be accomplished in a variety of ways: each group of muscles may first be tensed so that there will be a natural rebound into a more relaxed state; there may simply be a focus of attention on groups of muscles and a suggestion of relaxation; there may be the creation of an imaginary scenario such as a warm beach, which is designed to induce relaxed feelings.But however it is done the result is a great reduction of the activity of the main voluntary muscles, and very often the involuntary ones as well. It will be noticed that a typical induction process is a one-way affair. Unless a question is asked, the Client does not talk. This is usually accomplished by the Hypnotist maintaining a steady flow of speech in which there are no cues for the Subject to respond verbally. But however it is done, the result is that the active speech-producing system often becomes very inactive. The pattern is clear.The Hypnotherapist is reducing the activity of nearly all systems one by one. Higher-order faculties which are harder to observe, such as an internal verbal analysis of what is going on and a critical analysis of its content, are typically also reduced. There is, however, at least one exception to the general rule that systems are inactivated: and that is the aural system. The Subject must continue to be able to hear the Hypnotherapist. Ideally this system should become more active than usual: the intention is for the listener to respond more than usual to what is said by the Hypnotherapist.This may be accompanied by a reduction of attention to other sounds. Another possible exception will be a partic